According to a survey by Nature, one in five out of 1,400 adults admitted to using stimulants to boost their focus and memory. While the appeal of increased productivity is tempting, many are unaware of the dark side: a heightened risk of addiction.
The prevalence of stimulant misuse, including the tendency to abuse prescription stimulants, calls for a comprehensive understanding of related drugs and their potential consequences to stay safe. In this guide, we will explore common prescription and illicit stimulant drugs, how they exert their effects, and the ways to address their addiction.
So, let’s begin!
What are Stimulants?
Stimulants are a class of drugs that enhance the communication between the brain and the body. By taking them, one feels more alert, energetic, and confident. You can find them in various forms, which typically include tablets, capsules, powders, and crystals, having a potent odour and bitter taste.
Historically, physicians prescribed stimulants for treating conditions like asthma, obesity, and neurological disorders. However, soon, their high potential for abuse and addictive nature were recognised, leading to a decline in their usage. Currently, stimulant drugs are only used for limited health issues, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy.
They are also known as study drugs, as students tend to use them to enhance their cognitive performance and focus. A national survey of 2810 students conducted in the UK revealed that around 56% of them took stimulant drugs (cocaine and ecstasy), while 39% were involved in their ongoing usage.
Understanding the Mechanisms of Action of Stimulants
Different stimulants have different mechanisms of action through which they exert their effects on the human body. Their primary target is our central nervous system. That said, let’s explore those mechanisms in detail:
1. Enhanced Neurotransmitter Release
A few stimulants, like amphetamines, lead to enhanced release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, typically including dopamine and norepinephrine.
Basically, the drug enters the neurons and reverses the normal function of dopamine and norepinephrine transporter, which triggers the uncontrolled release. Consequently, one’s attention and activity levels are increased.
2. Inhibition of Neurotransmitter Reuptake
Another mechanism, typically used by substances like cocaine, involves blocking the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin back into the presynaptic neuron. The drug binds to their transporters and blocks their action to show this effect.
As a result, the neurotransmitters are not reabsorbed, leading to their accumulation in the synaptic cleft, which enhances mood, energy, and attention.
3. Blocking of Monoamine Oxidase
Monoamine oxidase inhibitor is responsible for inhibiting an enzyme known as monoamine oxidase or MAO. It is basically responsible for degrading neurotransmitters in the brain.
When the enzyme’s action is blocked by stimulants, the levels of dopamine and norepinephrine increase in the brain, causing the arousal effects. However, it is much weaker than the other mechanisms of action.
4. Interaction with Ion Channels and Neuronal Excitability
Stimulants also possess the power to change neuronal excitability and flux of ions across the neuronal membranes. For example, it can affect the way sodium and calcium ions are distributed and flow.
Since these ions are crucial for initiating and propagating electric signals in neurons, this action affects the overall activity of the brain. This results in increased alertness and responsiveness.
5. Direct Receptor Agonism
There are some stimulant drugs that depict a direct agonistic action on various neurotransmitter receptors, like dopamine, norepinephrine, and adrenergic ones. They bind to them and work through two ways, including:
● Mimic the action of natural neurotransmitters
● Enhance the action of natural neurotransmitters
Due to this action, the neural activity of the brain increases, which is correlated with heightened alertness and energy bursts.
6. Inhibition of Adenosine Receptors
Stimulants, especially caffeine, can block adenosine receptors (A1, A2a, and A3 subtypes). Since they promote relaxation and sleepiness, their inhibition leads to increased alertness and focus.
If consumed in higher doses, it can block phosphodiesterase enzymes. Consequently, the level of cyclic AMP increases in cells, which enhances the effects of various neurotransmitters, leading to stimulatory outcomes.
Two Major Prescription Stimulant Drugs: Understanding Prescription Stimulants
Currently, the UK is facing a rise in prescription drug misuse, which also includes common prescription stimulants, such as:
1. Adderall
Adderall, containing amphetamine, is typically prescribed by doctors for ADHD and narcolepsy. Its effects are more potent than caffeine, and it is usually misused by teens to increase productivity for effective academic progress. Since the drug belongs to the Schedule II class, its potential for addiction is quite high.
In the UK, Adderall’s prevalence of use is quite low (0.5%) as compared to other European nations. However, around 114 people died in England and Wales from this drug’s misuse in 2022, which is significantly higher than in previous years. (Statistica)
2. Ritalin
Ritalin is another CNS stimulant drug widely prescribed for ADHD as a drug of first choice. Its generic name is methylphenidate hydrochloride, and it is categorised as a Schedule II substance. Concerta is another drug that belongs to this class, present in the extended-release form.
When taken through an intranasal route with a minimum dosage of 200 mg, its effects are similar to that of amphetamines and crack cocaine. The drug is also abused intravenously with doses as high as 1000 mg. (PubMed Central)
A few other examples of prescription stimulants include:
Stimulants | Formula | Pharmacological Usage |
Vyvanse | Lisdexamfetamine | ADHD and binge eating disorder |
Dexedrine | Dextroamphetamine | ADHD and narcolepsy |
Focalin | Dexmethylphenidate | ADHD |
Four Common Illicit Stimulant Drugs
Let’s have a look at commonly abused illegal stimulant drugs in the UK and the ongoing challenges posed by drug abuse:
1. Cocaine
Made from the leaves of the coca plant, cocaine is a highly addictive illegal stimulant. The UK is one of the top three countries known for the most prominent use of cocaine, i.e., around 2.67%. Furthermore, almost 857 deaths were reported due to its abuse during 2022, according to Statistica.
There are a few types of cocaine, which include:
● Crack Cocaine: Crack is prepared by heating pure cocaine to remove the salt from it. Its vapours are then inhaled via a smoking pipe. Since this form of cocaine is cheaper, its prevalence is high in poverty-stricken regions. In England, around 3000,000 individuals struggle with crack cocaine addiction.
● White Powder Cocaine: It refers to the pure white form of cocaine, having a fine texture. Powdered cocaine is typically snorted or dissolved in water and injected. It is quite expensive when sold without any impurities. Being a fast-acting stimulant, it shows its effects in a few minutes.
Other common types also include cocaine paste (an intermediate product of cocaine processing and less effective) and freebase cocaine (a free form of cocaine, separated using ammonia).
2. Methamphetamine
Also known as meth, methamphetamine belongs to stimulant drugs commonly found as pills, powders, and crystals. The crystal form of this drug is known as ice. Its common routes of administration include oral, nasal, and venous.
Besides the common side effects of stimulants, its abuse can also lead to severe tooth decay and gum disease known as meth mouth. However, its usage is much less in the UK. According to data, only five individuals in every 100 use this illicit drug. This is particularly due to the existing popularity of other stimulants like cocaine and amphetamines in the region.
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3. Ecstasy (MDMA)
Ecstasy, or MDMA, is known as a designer drug that is commonly spotted at club parties and concerts. Besides being a stimulant, it is hallucinogenic as well and can damage brain cells. If overdosed, the body gets overheated during physical activity, which can lead to muscle breakdown, damage the heart, and even cause death.
In England and Wales, around 51 people died from MDMA abuse in 2022. Also, in 2017, over 513,000 kgs of ecstasy tablets were confiscated in the UK – the fourth highest in Europe. (Statistica)
4. Bath Salts
Bath salts or monkey dust belong to recreational designer drugs and are comprised of:
● Cathinones
● Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV)
● Mephedrone
● Methylone
The stimulant effect of bath salts is similar to amphetamines. Its use is becoming common in the UK due to its higher accessibility and lowered costs. Most of the time, its packaging comes with a warning, such as ‘not for human consumption’ to evade legal restrictions.
Adverse Health Impacts of Stimulant Abuse and Stimulant Withdrawal
The side effects of stimulant abuse can be divided into three major categories: physiological, psychological, and behavioural. Let’s overview them:
● Physiological Effects: These primarily include reduced appetite, difficulty falling asleep, weight loss, chest pain, nausea, headache, vomiting, abdominal pain, elevated blood pressure, etc. Stimulants can also lead to increased heart rate, respiratory rate and metabolism and cause dilated pupils, tremors, and muscle twitching.
● Physiologic Effects: Common psychological effects of stimulants encompass anxiety, nervousness, insomnia, mood swings, restlessness, etc. Moreover, there is a high risk for withdrawal symptoms, which include fatigue, depression, and irritability. Stimulant abuse is also closely linked to mental health disorders, with many individuals experiencing co-occurring disorders such as anxiety and depression.
● Behavioural signs: Stimulant abuse manifests in the form of hyperactivity, repetitive movements, skipping meals, rapid speech, talking more than usual, engaging in dangerous activities, paranoia, etc.
Stimulant Addiction Treatment - Three Top Ways to Overcome Dependency with Substance Abuse Treatment

Here is a look at how stimulant addiction is treated using a combination of behavioural therapies, medication, and extensive support within the broader context of substance abuse treatment:
1. Behavioural Therapies
Behavioural therapies are highly effective for any type of substance abuse, including that of stimulants. There are different types of therapies included in the treatment plan, such as:
● Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT): CBT for stimulant use disorder relies on social learning, operant conditioning, and classical conditioning theories. Through these, it aims to tackle the psychological aspects of addiction. The therapy basically aims to help patients unlearn behaviours that reinforce drug usage and replace them with healthy coping mechanisms.
● Contingency Management (CM): CM is based on the principles of positive reinforcement. In this type, the patients get a reward every time their drug tests come out to be negative. It could be anything, including a gift card or even some bigger prize.
A study revealed CM to be more effective than CBT during the treatment phase of stimulant addiction. However, CBT tends to yield a similar outcome if followed over the long term.
● Motivational Interviewing (MI): Referred to as a counselling approach, MI is designed to increase the patient’s motivation to change their behaviour. It is done by helping them explore and resolve the mixed feelings they might have about drug use. This therapy is highly effective during the initial phase of the treatment.
2. Pharmacotherapy
There are no FDA-approved medicines for treating stimulant addiction. However, research is ongoing into several promising candidates, especially for cocaine detoxification. These include:
● Modafinil: Modafinil has shown effective results for initiating abstinence from cocaine abuse. It helps reduce withdrawal symptoms and cocaine cravings by enhancing the neurotransmission of glutamate. Furthermore, according to clinical studies, the drug can also diminish the euphoric effects of cocaine.
● Propranolol: It’s another drug that can manage cocaine withdrawal symptoms by alleviating the impact of adrenaline. As a result, the associated anxiety and agitation are reduced in patients. Clinical trials suggest that propranolol can also enhance treatment retention and lead to initial sobriety with severe cocaine addiction.
● Bupropion: An antidepressant, bupropion can be effective in treating meth dependence. Not only does it reduce withdrawal symptoms, but it also enhances one’s mood, which is important in recovery. The drug basically inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine to demonstrate this effect.
3. Aftercare and Relapse Prevention
To support long-term recovery and prevention of relapse, ongoing support is crucial. It involves continuous access to counselling, family therapy, support groups, and relevant resources (employment support, educational workshops, etc.) to help one stay sober.
For example, programs like Narcotics Anonymous (NA) or SMART Recovery can prove essential in this journey. They offer a structured framework, helping individuals maintain sobriety and build a new life.
When it comes to relapse prevention, the common steps include:
● Identifying triggers
● Developing coping strategies (via mindfulness and other stress management techniques)
● Creating a network of supportive friends and family
PCP by Rehab Today - Your Gateway to Stimulant Addiction Recovery
Are you or any of your loved ones facing stimulant drug addiction? Recognising the problem is the first step on the path to recovery. The next action involves choosing an efficient rehab service. In that case, the Perry Clayman Project by Rehab Today can be your partner.
From free advice to one-on-one counselling and fully–catered rehab centres, we offer it all. The treatment starts with a thorough analysis of your condition and ends with complete aftercare. In between, our trained medical professionals take measures to detoxify your body and continue the treatment with suitable therapies.
Give us a call at 08000 380 480 for more details!